Japan - Government
From 500-1800 AD
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The samurai were the members of the military class, the Japanese warriors. Their importance and influence grew during the Heian Period (794-1185) when the powerful landowners hired them for the protection of their properties. In the latter phase of the Heian period, the most powerful military families, the Minamoto and Taira, had taken over political control over Japan and fought wars for supremacy. Shogun Minamoto Yoritomo established a new government in Kamakura in 1192 and the shogun (the highest military officer) became the ruler of Japan.
The samurai stood at the top of the social hierarchy and had many privileges. On the other hand, he was supposed to be a good example to the lower classes and had to follow the principles of Bushido (the way of the warrior). A samurai's most important principles are unlimited loyalty to his master, extreme self-discipline, brave, and selfless behavior. Many samurai also followed the teachings of Zen Buddhism. After losing his honor, a samurai would rather kill himself by cutting his stomach with his sword than to continue a disgraced life. Such suicide is called Seppuku (or Hara-kiri: "to cut the stomach"). The sword (katana) is the distinguishing mark of the samurai. Please visit the sword page for more information.
During the Edo Period, which was an era of peace, the samurai had nothing to fight for and dedicated themselves also to intellectual studies like literature, history, or the tea ceremony. During the 17th century, masterless and unemployed samurai caused some problems to the government. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the samurai class disappeared.
In the transitional stage from the 8th to the 10th Century, it is not certain how the Japanese sword was developed and completed in the late 10th Century. This is because few people have researched this period seriously and there are not many existant works. Most techniques of sword making were imported and many swordsmiths were invited to come to Japan from China and Korea.
Examining existant works of Japanese swords before they were fully developed, such as Kogarasu-maru and Kenuki-gata-tachi. It becomes clear that they played a transitional role to the next stage of the completion of the Japanese sword. As they have curvature and centre lines on both sides called Shinogi and an advanced technique of tempering is employed.
Within this transitory stage of the Japanese sword's history and influencing it's development, the appearance of Bushi is an important factor. This was also the period of the transition of power from aristocrats to Bushi. In the early stages, some aristocrats who were unhappy with their promotion in the administration or the Imperial Court, left Kyoto which was then the metropolitan capital of Japan, and went into countryside and started invading manors owned by other aristocrats who were living in Kyoto. These people were actually the origin of Bushi or Japanese warrior class.
As a result of frequent conflicts between these Bushi in the countryside who were against administration and the aristocrats in Kyoto, the country was gradually dragged into the war between the Genji clan (which was anti-aristocracy) and the Heike clan (which was pro-aristocracy).
Through the continuous battles, the Japanese sword became fully developed and became not only main weapon, but also status symbol of Bushi. Accordingly it was expressed as 'The Japanese sword is Soul of the Samurai' in the later Edo period.
By the end of the 10th Century, the elegant and refined shape of the Japanese sword was formed and it was made by using high quality material and was skillfully forged. In the meantime tempering sword with clay coating (to form the hardened edge) became well controlled. The functional and artistic completion of Japanese sword was due to been realized in the next stage.
In a period 1000 years ago, it's amazing to know there are many existant works of those days which have been preserved in good condition for 10 centuries and must realize how carefully they have been handled and cared for by succeeding generations.
Warrior or shogunate government (known in Japanese as bakufu, after the Chinese title for the imperial guard) first officially began when the warrior Minamoto-no-Yoritomo had himself invested with the official title Seii-Taishogun (Barbarian-quelling generalissimo) in the year 1192. Seven years after he had assumed de facto control of the country. (The title originated in 801, and had first been bestowed on a warrior who had conquered northern Japan for the Yamato emperors. This warrior, Sakanoue-no-Tamuramaro, however, made no bid for personal power).
Thus shogunate government came into being to fill the gap left by the weakness and incompetence of the court and the imperial regents. At first, therefore, the shogunate and the imperial court were not in opposition. Rivalry only arose with the Jokyu incident, after the third Minamoto shogun, Sanetomo, was assassinated, and the Minamoto line came to an end in 1219. The Hojo family -- relative of Yoritomo's wife, Masako -- acting as regents, declared the 2-year-old Kujo Yoritsune, a distant relative of Yoritomo, as shogun, and in practice retained the reins of power in their own hands. This was the signal for the court, under the cloistered emperor Gotoba. In an attempt to regain political power, in 1221, the court issued an order for the subjugation of the regent Hojo Yoshitoki, Masako's younger brother. The imperial forces, however, were quickly defeated, three cloistered emperors were exiled, and a new emperor, Goshirakawa, was appointed. This established the Kamakura shogunate's position as stronger than that of the court, enabling it to interfere in matters of succession to the throne, and to choose or change emperors in accordance with its own views.
Oda Nobunaga, who finally succeeded in this aim, and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, acted with genuine loyalty to the emperor, and did not establish shogunates under themselves. However, the last Ashikaga shogun, Yoshiaki, breaking faith with Oda Nobunaga, was banished. Toyotomi Hideyoshi's follower and successor, Tokugawa Ieyasu, set up his headquarters in Edo and established under his own rule a new shogunate. It was to be the last of its kind, enduring for over two and a half centuries. Ieyasu imposed strict controls on the daimyo families, in particular those which had opposed his own bid for power. They were forced to spend a large part of the revenue from their fiefs on road-building and other improvements, and also to maintain residences in Edo, the shogun's seat of government, as well as in their fiefs, leaving their wives and children in Edo as hostages, and themselves spending alternate years there. This kept them too poor to mount any effective opposition to the shogunate, even if they had been willing to sacrifice their families. Within this framework, the common people were governed by what was known as the bakuhan system, of dual control by the shogunate and the clan leaders or daimyo. At the same time, an apparently moderate but in fact strict and detailed control was maintained over the emperor and the court.
The Tokugawa shogunate made itself so much stronger than earlier shogunates that it had no need to hesitate over interference in imperial and court affairs and activities. It issued ordinances controlling the behavior of the Imperial family and the court nobles, and it determined what property could be held and what revenue could be received by emperor and court alike. The emperor during this period had no connection whatsoever with government or political affairs, and the 'appointment' of the shogun by the emperor was a mere matter of form. It was not until 260 years later than any anti-shogunate movement gained enough strength to be effective.
The Samurai Warriors:
http://www.bugei.com/sword.html
Samurai Warrior Swords:
http://www-leland.stanford.edu/~jgates/sword/buy/lecture.html
The Shogunate: